Subjective well-being among Latino day laborers: Examining the role of religiosity, social networks, and cigarette use

Introduction

The only national study on day laborers estimated that there are at least 117,647 day laborers in the United States, of whom over 90% are Latino immigrants.¹ Given the temporary nature of their work, Latino day laborers (LDLs) experience poor social determinants of health and suffer poor physical and mental health outcomes in part because day labor employment does not provide high pay, health insurance, or steady income.^1-3 This exacerbates the chronic stressors experienced by LDLs, such as fears of deportation, economic insecurity, occupational risks, and dire working conditions, and often results in poor health outcomes.^4,1

A limitation of the current literature on LDLs is that much of it has focused predominately on pathology and risk, which neglects the exploration of positive functioning as it relates to mental health.⁵ Perceived satisfaction with life, which is a function of subjective well-being (SWB), could be a protective factor against poor health and mental health outcomes, discrimination, and uncertainty among LDLs.⁶ For this study, SWB refers to a person’s subjective assessment of how they feel in relation to their current state of living.⁶ It is believed that self-assessments of well-being can be a useful indicator for examining the psychological consequences of the lived experiences of a specific group because the construct offers an ongoing evaluation and reaction to one’s life.⁷The strength of SWB is the notion that individuals are able to reflect on a person’s life and thus gives precedence and value to his or her lived experiences.⁸

Another limitation of the existing literature is that research on LDLs has shown that social isolation may encourage several health-compromising behaviors, such as crack use,⁹ alcohol use,¹⁰ and solicitation of sex with sex workers.^11,12 However, minimal attention has focused on cigarette use. There is some evidence suggesting that a number of LDLs may turn to smoking cigarettes to cope with daily stressors, given that smoking is associated with somatic feelings of relaxation from the body’s reaction to stress. One study indicated that 60% of LDLs with high stress levels reported increased cigarette use in their lifetime.¹³ Additionally, construction work, which is the trade of the majority of the LDLs, has been identified as having the highest prevalence of smoking patterns compared with the general population.¹⁴ That prevalence is in part because clean indoor air laws do not apply to construction workers working outdoors, where it is easier to smoke.¹⁵ Thus, smoking behaviors should be a topic of concern among LDLs.

The literature suggests that a number of factors contribute to an individual’s response to SWB. Subjective measures of well-being evaluate a person’s or group’s level of satisfaction with their life expectations compared with their objective realities. Assessing levels of SWB can solicit a response that assesses multiple dimensions of a person’s life. It could include macro-level social conditions that relate to the environment in which they live,¹⁶ as can micro-level experiences, such as living in poverty or homelessness.¹⁷If those living expectations far exceed their current living conditions, their subjective evaluation of their real-life situation is expected to diminish. SWB is an important construct to consider given that researchers have identified it as a factor associated with health and longevity.¹⁸The broader SWB literature suggests that: independent factors, such as sociodemographic characteristics (age,¹⁹legal status,¹⁷ education,^20,21 income,^22,23 and marital status,^24,25), religiosity,^2,5,26 social networks,^2,27 acculturation,^28,29 and cigarette use,^30-33 are significantly associated with SWB. The majority of these SWB studies did not exclusively focus on LDLs.

Materials and Methods

Results

Table 1 shows the descriptive statistics of the variables used in the analysis. Univariate statistics revealed that most respondents were of Mexican ancestry, (n = 112, 75%), with a median age of 42 years. The majority of LDLs were foreign-born (n = 140, 93%) and undocumented (n = 108, 72%). Foreign-born LDLs reported being in the United States a median of 10 years. Most of the respondents reported having less than an elementary school education (n = 86, 57%). The majority of respondents earned less than $20 000 in 2011 (n = 123, 82%). LDLs reported a mean satisfaction with life score of 19.07 (SD = 8.52). Thirty percent of LDLs reported not smoking any cigarettes in the past 30 days. However, 20% reported smoking 20–39 cigarettes, while another 20% reported smoking 40 or more cigarettes in the past 30 days.

Results of the Pearson’s r suggest that several variables were significantly correlated with SWB (see Table 2). Legal status was inversely associated with SWB (r = -0.18, P ≤ 0.05). LDLs who held legal status reported lower levels of SWB. LDLs who were married or partnered also reported higher levels of SWB (r = 0.42, P ≤ 0.001). This was also the case for acculturation. LDLs who were more acculturated reported significantly lower levels of SWB (r = -0.14, P ≤ 0.001). Social engagement with friends was also positively associated with higher levels of SWB (r = .55, P ≤ 0.001). Social engagement with family also shared a significant and positive relationship with SWB (r = 0.54, P ≤ 0.001). LDLs who reported that religion has an influence in their daily lives also reported higher levels of SWB (r = 0.70, P ≤ 0.001). Smoking cigarettes was statistically significant and negatively associated with SWB (r = -0.57, P ≤ 0.001). At the bivariate level, age, income, education, how often one attends their religious institution, and how religious one is were not significantly related to SWB.

The hierarchical multiple regression showed that at block 1, of the sociodemographic characteristics, only marital status (β = 0.42) contributed significantly to the regression model, (P < 0.001) and accounted for 9.3% of the variance SWB (see Table 3). Introducing acculturation, social engagement with friends (β = 0.21), how often one attends their religious institution (β = 0.11), and the influence of religion (β = 0.48) variables explained an additional 24% of variation in SWB in block 2, and this change in R² was significant (P < 0.001). In block 2, marital status remained statistically significant. Finally, adding smoking behavior (β = -0.15) to the model explained an additional 1.8% of the variation in SWB, and this change in R² was significant (P < 0.001). In model 2, 5 independent variables were significant in the overall regression model and accounted for 38.2% of the variance in SWB.

Discussion

The present study sought to investigate what factors predicted SWB among LDLs. To date, only two studies have explored how LDLs appraise their levels of SWB. Consistent with existing studies,^5,36 our findings show that LDLs were slightly dissatisfied with their lives as a whole. Given the adverse social conditions, economic distress, and social injustice LDLs endure, it might be expected that they have greater dissatisfaction with life.¹⁷ However, Diener and Biswas-Diener⁴³ suggest that Latinos express higher levels of happiness because of cultural values, where positive emotions are consciously more highly regarded as opposed to unpleasant emotions. These cultural groups are viewed as holding a more optimistic disposition in which they place greater weight on the pleasant events in their lives and focus less on negative circumstances.⁴³

Diner et al⁸ also suggest that SWB is greater among Latinos because of its collectivist perspective, which stems from traditional forms of family composition.⁴⁴ Latinos, in general, can be characterized by intimate and interdependent social relationships. Their households are embedded in a complex extended network of families and friends that places a stronger emphasis on social connectedness and cohesiveness.⁴⁴ This was evident in the present study that shows that LDLs who reported significantly higher levels of SWB were respondents who were married and who were more socially involved with their friends. Being married and more socially connected to friends is more likely to broaden social networks because they pool together their network of friends, families, and contacts. It could be suggested that such level of connectedness to other LDLs may act as a mediating factor in the relationship between economic distress and SWB. Hence, a more appropriate framework to view SWB among LDLs would be through a human nature approach in which an individual’s needs are assessed through a web of social relationships that can provide ongoing support.⁴³This would further explain why socioeconomic indicators, such as income and education, have little predictive value when examining SWB among LDLs.

The results show partial support for the specified hypotheses. Surprisingly, legal status significantly predicted SWB; US citizens reported significantly lower levels of SWB than noncitizens. The majority of LDLs in the present study were foreign-born, which may partially explain this finding. In cross-national studies of SWB, citizens from Latin America were found to have higher levels of SWB, despite economic adversity.⁴⁵Another explanation of this finding could relate to the views and aspirations of LDLs born and reared in the US, which may be more individualistic and materialistic in nature. This outcome is further corroborated by the direction of the acculturation variable, which suggests similar results. Both variables indicate that SWB is lower among LDLs who are US citizens and are more acculturated. It is plausible that LDLs who are US citizens may have lower levels of SWB because they have to vie with undocumented workers for unstable work that is low paying. US-born LDLs may be more disillusioned and dissatisfied with life given their economic instability and lack of economic mobility.

This study did not establish that a significant relationship exists between family and SWB. This is surprising, given that family has been shown to affect SWB among LDLs.⁵ It is plausible that since many LDLs who migrate to the United States leave families in their country of origin,² the lack of physical and immediate presence may have affected how much affect family had on their reported levels of SWB. It would be hard to have a close relationship with family members who are not accessible because of geographic distance. In the case of LDLs, the effects of their strong ties to other LDLs may have trumped the effects of family. Negi and colleagues² found that LDLs rely heavily on other LDLs for fellowship. LDLs help each other by identifying day labor corners, warning against exploitive employers, and even transporting video letters to their country of origin, all of which facilitate increased levels of well-being.

The results of this study, like others, suggest that religion plays a major role in predicting SWB among LDLs.^2,5It appears that religion may promote a greater sense of resilience that may safeguard against negative experiences that adversely affect their well-being.⁵In a qualitative study, LDLs reported that religion offered spiritual comfort and the church itself provides them with a space where they can find social and emotional support during difficult times.²

The present study shows that 70% of the LDLs who participated in this study smoked at least a couple of cigarettes in the previous 30 days. Moreover, the results show that increased cigarette use does significantly predict lower levels of SWB. This is consistent with other studies that have noted that smokers are less satisfied with their lives.^33,34 This is not surprising, given that LDLs contend with many daily stressors and work mostly in an industry that is recognized as having a higher prevalence of smoking than the general population. This finding is consistent with existing research that links a stressful life, workplace stress, and nature of work as predictors of the smoking behavior of an individual.^11-13

Limitations

There are several limitations in this study. The cross-sectional study does not allow for any causal inferences. Second, the results have limited generalizability, given that the data were collected from only 4 sites in 2 cities in Texas, non-probability sampling methods were used, and a relatively small sample size was achieved (N = 150). However, regarding the sample size, Crosby et al⁴⁶argue that research should be a balance between methodological rigor and the value of the issues being examined with a hard-to-reach population, such as LDLs. As noted by Crosby et al, “Although smaller samples may be limited in their statistical power to effectively test hypotheses and the precision of effect estimates may be less stable, a key consideration is the value of the findings in addressing gaps in the empirical literature as these gaps may be valuable for informing public health policy and practice” (p. 3). This consideration is applicable in this case because LDLs are a hidden population and many may not be willing to participate in any “traditional research” endeavor due to fears of being identified and possibly deported. Although the sample is not large, the findings are unique and add a greater understanding to the literature on SWB among LDLs. Third, a self-report survey was used to document smoking patterns. In addition, smoking behavior was measured only in the past 30 days and the single open question item is a limited measure of understanding patterns of cigarette use. We therefore lack accurate information about patterns, types of tobacco products used, and the nature of smoking behaviors. Such information would have been useful for understanding smoking behaviors in relation to SWB.

Implications

Notwithstanding its limitations, several implications can be drawn from the findings. First, SWB among LDLs is tied closely to religious beliefs. Perhaps professionals and faith-based organizations can partner to provide services at the churches or partner with churches to provide outreach. It is likely that LDLs will make use of services if they are part of larger faith-based initiatives. Second, LDLs in the present study reported engaging in smoking behaviors that have gone overlooked by health researchers. This is a preliminary finding that warrants further research. It may be prudent for professionals to develop culturally appropriate smoking cessation programs that aim to decrease the prevalence of smoking behaviors among such a vulnerable group. Otherwise, this overlooked health-risk behavior may help contribute to the health disparities experienced by a group that is at elevated risk of contracting cancer, heart disease, and stroke, all of which are connected to smoking cigarettes and subsequent mortality.⁴⁷ Third, given that the majority of participants in this study were undocumented immigrants, and given the current anti-immigration climate affecting undocumented Latinos, it is more important than ever to identify factors that protect LDLs’ well-being. Furman, Ackerman, and Negi⁴⁸provide policy and practice implications that may be useful for practitioners to consider, given that undocumented LDLs may require services in a variety of settings (e.g., hospitals, criminal justice systems, mental health agencies). Practitioners should also be aware of proposed anti-immigration state and national policies because of the negative effect they have on physical and psychological well-being.

Last, this study has significant public health implications as the findings extend beyond protective factors attributed to positive SWB, in that it provides preliminary findings to consider risk factors such as cigarette smoking. Furthermore, an understanding of coping behaviors among LDLs and their collective circle may potentially influence how practitioners conduct health promotion outreach and other health interventions. More research is needed that also explores whether cigarette use is a reaction to the daily stressors experienced by LDLs and whether its use is a conventional coping mechanism encouraged by networks in which LDLs participate. Future studies on coping strategies designed to enhance or promote SWB are urgently needed.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the present study examined SWB among LDLs. Evaluating SWB is important, given that this indicator provides a first-hand appraisal of how LDLs view their lives. This study revealed that better life evaluations among LDLs included engaging with friends and family, religious connection, and being married or with a life partner. These findings show that LDLs are resilient and rely on noneconomic influences to enhance their perceived quality of life. This study also points to the importance of smoking behaviors as a negative predictor of SWB. The findings underscore the need to identify pathways to improve SWB among LDLs. Doing so may close the broader mental health and occupational health disparities gaps that burden the Latinos who live their lives in overlapping vulnerabilities as men of color, undocumented status, and vulnerability of their occupation.

Ethical approval

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study. The Institutional Review Board at the University of Texas at Arlington approved all protocols associated with the present study.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Funding

No external funding was obtained for the current study.

Authors’ contributions

JFB developed the concept and design of this research project; developed the manuscript; collected data, carried out the analysis and interpretation; developed the manuscript, and approved the final version of the manuscript. PV participated in the data analysis and interpretation and writing of the manuscript. ER helped in identifying measures at the beginning of the project, participated in the data collection, and contributed to the development of the manuscript. All 3 authors have reviewed, approved, and consented to the submission, and they are accountable for all aspects of its accuracy and integrity in accordance with ICMJE criteria.

Acknowledgments

We would like to acknowledge the contributions made by the participants of the current study. The day laborers who participated could have opted out, but chose to provide us with insightful information. This was greatly appreciated.

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